Unit Two: New Horizons (1648-1815)
The era from 1648 to 1815 was bookended by two important marker events in European history — the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The Peace of Westphalia formally ended the religious strife that characterized the previous period (1450-1648), and made religious pluralism an accepted pattern of life in Europe. Although religious tension continued, the new agreements allowed states to concentrate on building their political and economic prowess, especially those that bordered the Atlantic Ocean and its expanding trade routes. The absolute power of European monarchs peaked during the time be-tween 1648 and 1750, only to be challenged by new political forms that allowed legislatures to restrict the authority of hereditary rulers during the late 18th century. New concepts of states emphasized national identity and shared power as the basic building blocks of political systems. As the era ended, powerful states were struggling with questions of political organization that Napoleon Bonaparte had thrust upon them, and the Congress of Vienna answered the challenge by reinforcing the rights of hereditary monarchs and the carefully orchestrated balance of power among European nations.
These political developments were complemented by the rapid regional and global growth of European economic systems, as land claims in the Americas evolved into lucrative established trade routes. Mercantilism and capitalism continued to fuel economic growth, and eventually sparked one of the most important marker events in world history, the Industrial Revolution, which began in England during the late 18th century. The era is also characterized by the deepening divide between countries that bordered the Atlantic and those in central and eastern Europe, which did not participate significantly in the expanding global economy.
Culturally, growing secularism supported the continuing influence of the Scientific Revolution that had begun during the 16th century, and scientific principles were applied to political and social realms of life. Baroque art and music continued to glorify religious feelings, but rationalism dominated the lives of many European elites for most of the period. Rationalism sparked the French Revolution in 1789, but unleashed the forces of romanticism and nationalism that encouraged people to question basic rational assumptions about life by the end of the period.
The era from 1648 to 1815 was bookended by two important marker events in European history — the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the Congress of Vienna in 1814-1815. The Peace of Westphalia formally ended the religious strife that characterized the previous period (1450-1648), and made religious pluralism an accepted pattern of life in Europe. Although religious tension continued, the new agreements allowed states to concentrate on building their political and economic prowess, especially those that bordered the Atlantic Ocean and its expanding trade routes. The absolute power of European monarchs peaked during the time be-tween 1648 and 1750, only to be challenged by new political forms that allowed legislatures to restrict the authority of hereditary rulers during the late 18th century. New concepts of states emphasized national identity and shared power as the basic building blocks of political systems. As the era ended, powerful states were struggling with questions of political organization that Napoleon Bonaparte had thrust upon them, and the Congress of Vienna answered the challenge by reinforcing the rights of hereditary monarchs and the carefully orchestrated balance of power among European nations.
These political developments were complemented by the rapid regional and global growth of European economic systems, as land claims in the Americas evolved into lucrative established trade routes. Mercantilism and capitalism continued to fuel economic growth, and eventually sparked one of the most important marker events in world history, the Industrial Revolution, which began in England during the late 18th century. The era is also characterized by the deepening divide between countries that bordered the Atlantic and those in central and eastern Europe, which did not participate significantly in the expanding global economy.
Culturally, growing secularism supported the continuing influence of the Scientific Revolution that had begun during the 16th century, and scientific principles were applied to political and social realms of life. Baroque art and music continued to glorify religious feelings, but rationalism dominated the lives of many European elites for most of the period. Rationalism sparked the French Revolution in 1789, but unleashed the forces of romanticism and nationalism that encouraged people to question basic rational assumptions about life by the end of the period.
The Big Picture: 1648-1815
The "chunk" of European history from 1648 to 1815 is distinguished from other periods in these ways:
The "chunk" of European history from 1648 to 1815 is distinguished from other periods in these ways:
- Absolutism reached its peak as a type of political system that concentrated power in the hands of hereditary monarchs. An important exception was the development of constitutionalism in England and the Dutch Republic, where legislatures contained the rulers' power. By the end of the era, Enlightenment thought had spawned an interest in democratic forms of government.
- European economic hegemony extended regionally and globally, as nations that rimmed the Atlantic Ocean became leaders in the worldwide economic network. The Industrial Revolution transformed economic development by removing the traditional constraints of limited resources and replacing them with the possibilities of self-generating economic growth.
- The popularization of the Scientific Revolution spread scientific know-ledge to many more people, and its emphasis on rationalism influenced political philosophy and views of social structures. By the end of the era, romanticism and nationalism seriously questioned rationalism as a basic philosophical approach.
- The population explosion of the 16th century continued to cause hardship during this era, with food shortages and disease that often resulted in high mortality rates. By the late 18th century, improvements in transportation, sanitation, and agricultural crops caused mortality rates to decline, and famine became less widespread. Environmental and demographic changes occurred as cities grew and industrial centers began. With urbanization and early industrialization, family patterns changed to create a Demo-graphic Revolution that resulted in longer life spans, later marriage, and smaller families.